- 土耳其研究（2019年第1期/总第2期）
- 李秉忠主编
- 1822字
- 2025-04-08 21:07:07
Introduction to the Journal of Turkish Studies[1]
Turkey is a fascinating country，full of history. Geographically speaking，it is located at the crossroads of several ancient civilisations，such as the Mesopotamia and Egyptian civilizations （based on the Nile） and the Greek civilization，while it is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea，the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. The precursor of the Turkish Republic，the Ottoman Empire holds a distinguished place in global history as one of the greatest empires in the world. The close interaction of the Ottomans with other civilizations，combined with its geographical place，makes Turkey full with history and energy. Apart from history，modern and contemporary politics also are fascinating to follow and analyze. For example，recently Turkey’s President Erdoğan won the presidential election on June 24，2018.
The Ottoman Empire existed for more than 500 years. The history of the Ottoman Empire and perceptions of Ottoman history，have greatly influenced the development of modern Turkey. The Ottoman Empire，indeed，deeply influenced the surrounding West Asian，North African and European areas，and through that profoundly affected the course of world history. On the one hand，the growing economic，cultural，and diplomatic interaction between Europe and the Ottoman Empire influenced the patterns of modernization，intellectual discourse and institutions which developed under the Ottoman Empire. Through these processes the Ottoman Empire was incorporated into the capitalist world. On the other hand，the Ottomans in turn had a major impact on the evolution and formation of many central，east，and west European states，and in the way they were shaped in the popular imagination. The pluralistic coexistence between different religions and ethnic groups within the Ottoman Empire also provided an important inspiration for many societies in the modern world.
The perception of the Ottomans as the greatest threat to the European world ceased to exist after 1683. The Empire，however，remained in control of southeast Europe for two more centuries，dominating the modern-day states of Bulgaria，Serbia （and other parts of former Yugoslavia），Greece，and Rumania in particular. In its Asian and African provinces，the Ottoman Empire persisted rather longer. It was only in its final days，then，that the Ottoman Empire could be considered an Asiatic，Middle Eastern power.
It was over the 1798-1922 period that the Ottoman Empire experienced its most significant and far-reaching reorganization. Nonetheless，it is important to recognize that changes over this period had a basis in earlier developments. The changes can best be seen as accelerating and shaping processes of development and transformation which had begun at an earlier time. Earlier patterns of political and economic life remained generally recognizable. Economic penetration and European imperialist agendas，after 1798，came together to deliver a powerful impact on ideas and institutions within the Empire. This gave rise to a more powerful and centralized state，embodying generally successful policies for the control and management of society. The Tanzimat Reforms （1839-1876），redefining the status of Muslims and non-Muslims，stemmed from the pressures exerted by external powers and forces. Domestically，the Sublime Porte needed to institute these measures so as to save the Empire. Although the Ottoman sultan did indeed manage to stabilize the empire，he could not overcome the crisis that erupted between the Porte and the new military and civil elite that had emerged as a result of the process of reform. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 brought back the short-lived 1876 Constitution，which the Sultan had introduced and then retracted. The Young Turks ruled the empire from 1913 through to the end of World War I. It was through the Young Turk ranks that Mustafa Kemal （later Atatürk） emerged，launching a successful resistance movement against the foreign powers in Anatolia （1919-1922），and establishing the TurkishRepublic in 1923.
The modern Turkish Republic has，like the Ottoman Empire，had a mixed history of challenges，successes and difficulties. The Republic has been subject to significant processes of change：from an authoritarian military-backed system to democratic politics；and from a parliamentary system to a presidential system. Its experience is that of a medium-sized regional country surviving in a complex and turbulent environment. From the late Ottoman Empire to the modern Turkish Republic，the Turks have been exploring possibilities and experimenting with a developmental path suitable for themselves，finally choosing a version of the westernized mode of internal and external alignment. This is now shaping not only the economic and political structures of Turkey but also significant parts of its underlying culture.
When President Erdoğan won the presidential election on June 24，2018，this was the first time in the history of the Republic of Turkey that parliamentary and presidential elections were held at the same time，marking the beginning of Turkey’s transition from a parliamentary system to a presidential system. An important new dynamic came into the political system，and this will without doubt have a significant impact on the country’s future political development. The crisis in Turkish-US relations clearly bears witness to the new dynamic. On August 10，2018，US President Trump announced the doubling of tariffs on Turkish steel and aluminum products，asking for an overall review of relations between the two countries. This is part of a multi-layered confrontation，where each issue in dispute makes more difficult the resolution of other issues. Meanwhile，Turkey’s relations with the EU have been largely stagnant since 2017，whereas a more cooperative relationship than before has been developed with Russia. Turkey has also expressed enthusiasm for China’s Belt and Road Initiative，and it now more closely than ever engaged in developments in the Middle East. It seems，then，that Turkey is now embarking on a path of multilateralism in its external policies，bringing to an end the predominantly Western orientation and alignment which had been in place for 100 years.
The development path reflects a similar determination to move away from Western economic models. Turkey had found itself in a developmental bottleneck，where it was almost impossible to break through to the creation of a more developed economy. It is now intent on exploring new developmental paths，drawing in part on the rich experience it has accumulated over the centuries. This is not an easy process. It raises many significant theoretical problems and it is likely to show how difficult it is for any country in today’s conditions to find a developmental path suited to its own needs. The study of the experience will deepen academic understanding of the dynamics shaping world history.
It is not only in the field of development that Turkey’s experience is of relevance to the study and understanding of world history. Turkey’s position in international politics is also of relevance to wider trends in the world. The most prominent feature of the current global system is instability and unpredictability. Academic and non-academic circles are rightly concerned about the outcome of this. From the 1940s to the early 2000s，the world was full of dangers and challenges，but most of the time it was possible to identify the main drivers of events and the problems arising. Within this context，it was possible to envisage solutions which would resolve problems—or at least plot strategies which would reduce tension. This is now very difficult to do. The election of Donald Trump to the US presidency，the prevalence of populism and extreme nationalism in Europe，and the instability in the global economy，have created a global order marked by great uncertainty and unpredictability. Turkey occupies a critical position in this new and uncertain world. Nationalist sentiment is running high in Turkey，and the emergence of strong Kurdish entities in the states bordering Turkey to the South poses considerable challenges. The course of the Syrian civil war has been，and will continue to be，of major importance in global relations，and Turkey is playing a key role there. In the wider context，the issue of Turkey’s accession or non-accession to the European Union remains an important concern engaging the foreign ministries of European countries，and the crisis in relations with the United States adds a new level of uncertainty to global politics.
At present，there are many “black holes” in the study both of the Ottoman Empire and of the modern Republic of Turkey. These black holes need to be researched not only on the basis of history but of the full range of interdisciplinary studies. Furthermore，the interdisciplinary study and approach to Turkish history matters，as it aims to solve a wide range of issues pertaining not only to Turkey itself but the entire world：for example，how different ethnicities，religions，histories，and even different ambitions can live harmoniously in such a way that would be beneficial for the entire world. These are some of the questions that learned men will be exploring and presenting their findings in the pages of the present journal.
Up to now，there is no specialist Chinese journal covering developments in Turkey. Shaanxi Normal University has decided to publish the Journal of Turkish Studies，sponsored by the Institute of History and Civilization and the Centre for Turkish Studies. Our task is to focus on the Ottoman Empire and the modern Turkish Republic. We wish to comprehensively examine the historical，cultural，political，economic，military and diplomatic dimensions of the country，while paying attention to how Turkey relates to and interacts with the rest of the world. Through an interdisciplinary prism，we want to achieve a deeper understanding of Turkey，and through that to contribute to the understanding of global historical processes. All articles published in the journal will be original manuscripts. Chinese scholars’ articles will be published in Chinese，and foreign scholars’ articles will be published in English.
September 24th （Mid-Autumn Day） 2018，Xi’an，China
[1] I am grateful to Professor Tim Niblock from Exeter University，Professor Chen Xiaolv from Nanjing University，Professor Huang Zhaoyu from China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations，associate Professor Zantao from Peking University，and Associate Professor Seevan Saeed，Associate Professor Guo Xianghong，Dr. Nikos Christofis all from Centre for Turkish Studies，for their wise and helpful comments in developing this introduction.